Further Study
What is a Muslim’s heritage of knowledge and learning?
Social Studies Curricula in Canadian schools rarely cover Muslim history and the legacy it left the world. While emphasizing European and Western Civilization, there is little to no mention or acknowledgment of the pivotal role of the Muslim Civilization.
During Europe’s Dark Ages, the Muslim World was at the height of learning and development. It is a known fact that the Renaissance was due in great part to the advancement and transmission of knowledge from the Muslim Civilization.
Due to the omission of Muslim history in the Canadian curricula, the stereotypes and myths perpetuated by the media that portray Muslims as a barbaric, backward people and Islam as a religion that teaches violence and oppression are accepted as historically accurate.
It is essential that educational institutions be sources where these myths can be dispelled and misinformation can be countered. They need to introduce Muslim civilization in their curriculum and to stock their libraries with recognized and scholarly works by both Muslim and non Muslim authors.
Hopefully, a closer, more accurate look at Muslim history and heritage will encourage people to question current and negative stereotypes of Muslims and Islam. It is also hoped that Muslim children can learn and take pride in the positive contributions of Muslims.
The “Golden Age” of Muslim History
As the Muslim ummah grew to include different peoples of different lands and cultures, so grew new ideas and knowledge that would alter the world forever.
What Muslims learned from one culture was translated, incorporated and enhanced with knowledge from other cultures, forming new discoveries and theories. Muslims learned new ways of improving their lifestyle and reaching their utmost potential. The maximum effort towards enhancing society in all aspects of human life from travel and navigation to art and entertainment was at its height in the world in the Muslim ummah for over 500 years.
The Advancement of Knowledge & A New Era in Human History
In Islam, gaining knowledge is not only a right, but a duty on every Muslim, male and female. The first verse of the Quran revealed to the Prophet Muhammad was an instruction to read.
Gaining knowledge is of special significance in Islam because it is considered a means of becoming closer to God. For Muslims, the source of knowledge comes from revelation as well as from reason. Muslims are taught first to know about their Creator and then to know about their own creation. They learn what is right and wrong, and the values they must live by according to God. Moreover, the Qur’an urges people to observe, question, and reflect on the natural and physical environment around them.
For Muslims, having knowledge is also a responsibility. Although Muslims are encouraged to seek out and use the good things of this world, they have a duty to abide by the values of Islamic teaching:
A Muslim is a khalifah (caretaker) on this earth; s/he respects all living things and maintains a balance of the environment.
A Muslim gains knowledge for the advancement and benefit of everyone.
A Muslim uses her/his knowledge to ensure the freedom and justice of everyone.
(Islam, the Natural Way 1996 by W.Hamid)
Islam is a religion based upon knowledge. The text of the Qur’an is filled with verses inviting people to use their intellect, to ponder, to think and to search for truth. In Islam, the purpose of human life is to worship of God alone. In one’s quest to find the truth, knowledge is an essential guide.
The Hadith literature or sayings of Muhammad is also full of references to the importance of knowledge. Such sayings of the Prophet as "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the people of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets", have echoed throughout the history of Islam and incited Muslims to seek knowledge wherever it might be found. During most of its history, Muslim civilization has been witness to a veritable celebration of knowledge. That is why every traditional Muslim city possessed public and private libraries. Some cities like Cordoba and Baghdad boasted of libraries with over 400 000 books.
Science in the Qur’an
Many of the early Muslim scholars noticed that there were numerous verses in the Qur’an which introduced and explained phenomena in the universe. In the centuries that followed Prophet Muhammad’s death, Muslim scholars took these verses as clues for unanswered questions in topics ranging from human embryology and medicine to astronomy and geology. Below are a few of the many passages that point to science in the Qur’an.
...the heavens and the earth were joined together, then We split them apart and We got every living thing from water...” (21: 30)
Have you observed the water you drink? Do you bring it down from the rain clouds? Or do We? If it were Our will, We could make it salty. Then why are you not thankful?” (56: 68-70)
Verily, in cattle there is a lesson for you. We give you to drink what is inside their bodies, coming from what is between their intestines and blood - a milk pure and pleasant for those who drink it.” (16:66)
The following chart shows some of the areas and major accomplishments in science made during the “Golden Age” of Muslim history - between the 8th and 13th century of the Common Era.
| Scientist | Latin Name | Major Contributions |
| Jabir Ibn Hayyandied 803 CE |
Geber | - known as the “Father of Chemistry” - works formed encyclopedia of chemistry - wrote Sum of Perfection translated into French |
| Al-Khwarizmi 770 – 840 CE |
Algorizm | - wrote Al Jabr Wal Muqabilah or Calculation by Symbols; origin of algebra & algorithm; main math text for European universities until the 16th century |
| Abbas Ibn Firnas died 888 |
- invented, constructed and tested a flying machine in the 7th century CE, about 700 years before da Vinci. - invented eyeglasses, which were manufactured and sold throughout Spain for over 200 years - developed planetarium, artificial crystals |
|
| Al-Battani858 – 929 CE | Albategnius | - refined trigonometry; “sine”, “cosine”, & “tangent” are all derived from Arabic terms |
| Al-Razi 864 – 930 CE |
Rhazes | - used mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics - wrote a detailed treatise on the venous system, accurately describing the function of veins & valves - wrote Al-Hawi or Complete Text of 22 volumes, used as one of the main medical school textbooks in Paris - wrote treatise on measles & smallpox describing their clinical difference, later translated into Latin in 1565 CE |
| Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahravi 936 – 1013 CE |
Albucasis | - known as the “Father of Modern Surgery” - began ligating arteries with fine sutures or catgut - wrote treatise of 30 volumes on medicine and surgery, including preventive medicine, nutrition, drug therapy, surgical technique, anesthesia, pre and post-operative care, drawings of surgical devices, 500 years before French surgeon Ambroise Pare |
| Ibn Al-Haytham 965 – 1040 CE |
Alhazen | - known as the “Founder of Optics” - discovered that white light is actually a combination of colored rays of light |
| Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni 973 – 1048 CE |
- calculated the earth’s circumference - wrote text on geology; by observing fossils, theorized that early life on earth began in water, 500 years before da Vinci - theorized geological formation of valleys, 700 years before Nicolas Desmarest |
|
| Ibn Sina 981 – 1037 CE |
Avicenna | - wrote Al-Qanon Fi Al-Tibb or Canon of Medicine, an encyclopedia of 5 volumes containing all medical knowledge since the 10th century; it was translated in many languages and was the reference for medical schools in Europe until the 17th century |
| Al-Idrisi 1099 – 1166 CE |
Dreses | - made a map of the world - made the first globe |
Islamic Medicine (1989), Muslim Contribution to Civilization (1962), http://cyberistan.org/islamic/
Universities
During the Golden Age of Muslim civilization, above the entrances of the universities in Spain, read the inscription,
The world is held up by four pillars; the wisdom of the learned, the justice of the great, the prayers of the righteous, and the valour of the brave. (Bammate 1962)
Universities were established in all of the major cities throughout the Muslim World, from Baghdad to Timbuktu. Cordoba, Spain was renown as the intellectual hub of higher learning and progressive thinking in all of Europe.
Muslim cities also had bookstores, some of which sold a large number of titles. That is why the scholar has always been held in the highest esteem in Muslim society.
The oldest university in the world, (which is still functioning), is the 1100 year-old Islamic university of Fez, Morocco, known as the Qarawiyyin.
As early as 830 CE, the Khalifah Mamun established the Bait Al-Hikma or House of Learning in Baghdad. It provided academic learning, an extensive library, and was a center for translation and transmission of ancient civilization to the Western World (Bammate 1962). Jewish, Christian, and Muslim scholars studied, tested, and expanded the ideas of Greek scientists and philosophers, such as Ptolemy, Euclid, Aristotle, and Hippocrates. Moreover, theories once believed to be accurate were refuted and replaced by new theories, many of which have become the foundation for current knowledge and practice.
In fact, the Baghdad University was a place unparalleled to any other institution until the 17th century.
Hospitals
Hospitals were another common feature in the Muslim World during the Golden Age. In Islamic Medicine (1989), hospitals are described with the following characteristics:
- treated ALL people regardless of colour, religion, ethnic origin or socio-economic background
- were run by the government as public institutions
- (main hospitals) were medical schools with library, lecture halls & housing for staff
- provided baths and a water supply to all patients and staff (for general cleanliness & washing before prayers)
- had on-site pharmacy, where drugs & new compounds were made using knowledge of others cultures, from China to East Africa
- hired only those physicians with a legal license to practice medicine
- had separate wards for different illnesses
- kept patient records & history
- were training hospitals for medical students
- appointed male nurses for male patients & vice versa
Art and Calligraphy
The two most dominant features of Islamic art are the geometric pattern, used originally in the Roman-Byzantine culture, and the floral design, which was drawn from Persian culture. One could say that Arabic calligraphy particularly of the Qur’an, became a distinguished science as well as art. Over the centuries, numerous ways or scripts were invented. Below is the same phrase, “Bis millah ar rahman ar raheem” or “In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful”, written in several different calligraphic scripts. Muslims say this phrase before reading the Qur’an and performing other acts.
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Architecture
Perhaps the most ornate sign of Muslim civilization is the architecture. Today, when visiting most places in the Muslim World, one may easily find themselves back in time and feel a sense of the magnificent skill and creativity of Muslim architects of the past.
From mosques and universities to bridges and landscapes, Muslims took great care in designing and building, not only keeping in mind the outward appearance, but also the inward beauty and efficient function of the structure. Many mosques, for example, were distinguished for their colourful tile of intricate patterns, calligraphy of verses from the Qur’an, pillars, domes, minarets, geometric patterns carved in stone, hand-woven carpets, marble floors, and courtyards with accompanying fountain used for washing before prayers.
Some of the great masterpieces of Islamic architecture include the Alhambra in Cordoba, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Taj Mahal in India. They illustrate how Muslim architects and scientists would often work together to display unison between artistic expression and remarkable technological know-how.
Western architecture adopted many techniques of Islamic architecture. For example, gothic arches and interior courtyards of many medieval and Renaissance European structures reflect Islamic architectural design. Islamic influence, particularly Moorish, also exists in the architecture of Spain, Latin America and southwestern United States.
Exploration & Trade
Traveling to other lands was already practiced by the Arabs in Arabia before Muhammad became a prophet. Trade and business took the Arabs across land and sea – as far as India and China. As the Muslim ummah or community grew, Muslim traders and explorers pushed farther out to seek their livelihood and meet new peoples.
One of most well-known Muslim explorers in history was Abu ‘Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Battuta or simply, Ibn Battuta (1304 – 1369 CE). He traveled a total of 75 000 miles from Morocco to China in the span of 29 years. Ibn Batutta kept a journal of his encounters with different cultures and peoples that was later composed into a travel book called Ar-Rihla.
Unknown to most people living in North America is the fact that Muslims arrived here long before Christopher Columbus in 1492 CE. Some of these Muslims came from West Africa and others (known as the Moors) came from Spain. Those Muslims that stayed, settled and introduced Islam to the native Americans. Today, some Muslims in America are beginning to discover their Muslim ancestry.
Muslim Civilization Inspires Europe
Much of the knowledge gained during the Muslim civilization provided the basis for Europe’s Renaissance. For centuries, places like Timbuktu, Cordoba, and Baghdad were often visited by European scholars in search of higher learning. Toledo (Spain) was a place where Muslim culture and science was passed on to Europe through translation of Arabic into Latin and then later into other European languages.
Among the scholars who flocked to Toledo from all over Europe were Gerard of Cremona (1117- 1187) and John of Seville. Other famous translators were Adelard of Bath, Robert of Chester, Michael Scot, Stephenson of Saragossa, William of Lunis and Philip of Tripoli...Many translators at Toledo had neither command over the Arabic language nor sufficient knowledge of the subject matter. They translated word for word and, where they failed to understand, Latinized the Arabic words. (Zahoor 1997)
As a result of these translations, Islamic thought and Greek thought, which Muslims had translated, became known to the West. As a result, Western schools of learning began to flourish and the Islamic educational system was emulated in Europe. As European civilization grew and reached the high Middle Ages, there was hardly a field of learning or form of art, whether it was literature or architecture, where there was not some influence of Islam present. In this way, Islamic learning became part of Western civilization.
Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) were first introduced by Pope Sylvester II in the 10th century and replaced the Roman numeric system.
Even into the 17th century, universities across Europe were using many of the textbooks and works of scholars of Muslim civilization. For example, William Harvey, who is attributed for discovering the method of blood circulation in the human body, studied at Padua University in Italy, where most of the curriculum was based upon Ibn Sina's and Al-Razi's textbooks (Zahoor 1997).
| English Words of Arabic Origin | ||
| admiral | cotton | monsoon |
| algebra | earth | mummy |
| algorithm | giraffe | orange |
| alcohol | guitar | racket |
| adobe | influenza | retina |
| almanac | jar | sugar |
| alkali | magazine | syrup |
| cataract | mascara | talc |
| coffee | massage | zenith |
| cornea | mattress | zero |
Some Painful Events in Muslim History
The Crusades
For both Muslims and Jews, the Crusades represents a period of genocide, cultural havoc and degeneration. The European image of holy warriors going off to liberate the Holy Land from the clutches of the “infidels” is more realistically viewed as the period in which Jerusalem and other centers of religious tolerance and great learning were sacked, its non-Christian inhabitants murdered, its libraries burnt, and its architectural wonders destroyed. Allusions to the Crusades as “positive” are highly offensive.
The Spanish Inquisition
Muslim Spain in 1492 was a society heralded by scholars and historians the world over as one defined by pluralism and tolerance. The “Reconquest” of Muslim Spain began a period known as the Spanish Inquisition. During this dark time, the Christian clergy under the support of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella sanctioned a genocide against the Jews and Muslims who were forced to choose between conversion or death.
Mogul invasion - The Tartars
This era, ranging between the 14th and 15th centuries, is considered one of the most brutal in Islamic history. The Moguls, led by Genghis Khan, attacked the Muslim World, pillaged cities, burned down thousands of libraries, schools and places of worship. They slaughtered Muslims by the hundreds of thousands.
Within 50 years of their invasion, the Moguls accepted Islam – a remarkable and significant turn of events.
Fall of the Ottoman Empire & the Colonization of the Muslim World
After WWI, the Ottoman Empire dissolved. This drew to a close 500 years of Ottoman rule and over 1400 years of centralized leadership of the Muslim World.
What followed was the creation of nation states to replace the traditional linguistic and cultural divisions in the Muslim World. These states, such as Turkey, Trans Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Mesopotamia (Iraq), Persia (Iran) and Arabia were given artificial borders by the conquering European powers who were primarily the British and the French. Governments were put in place that maintained their colonial affiliations. This transition did not happen spontaneously however.
The decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of European military and economic might began in the 16th century. The encroachment and eventual occupation of Muslim lands such as India, North Africa, and Central Asia, was a gradual process.
European imperialism and colonization marks the beginning through which Muslim lands, peoples, cultures, governments and resources were disrupted, divided and conquered.
The resulting clash left millions of Muslims humiliated. The pride and dignity of a civilization that had contributed so much to the world was shattered.
References
Ahmad, K.J. Hundred Great Muslims Chicago: Kazi Publications, 1987.
Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. The Holy Qur’an. Beltsville, MD: Amana Books, 1994.
Al-Faruqi, Ismail and Lamya Al-Faruqi. Cultural Atlas of Islam New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1986.
The Arts of Islam: Masterpieces from the Metropolitan Museum of Art New York: 1982.
Athar, Shahid, ed. Islamic Medicine Pakistan: Pan-Islamic Publishing House, 1989.
Bammate, Haidar. Muslim Contribution to Civilization USA: The Crescent Publications
Bucaille, Maurice. The Bible, the Qur’an, and Science Paris: Seghers, 1986.
Hammid, Abdul Wahid. Islam, The Natural Way London: MELS, 1989.
Lings, Martin. Muhammad, His Life Based on the Earliest Sources New York: Inner Traditions International, Ltd., 1983.
Rahim, A. Islamic History Delhi: Royal Publishers & Distributors, 1992.
Sardar, Ziaudin. Muhammad: Aspects of His Biography London: The Islamic Foundation, 1978.
Websites
The Golden Age of Islam
http://stormwind.com/common/islam.html
The Islamic World to 1600 (maps)
http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html
The Emergence of Renaissance
http://cie.org/pdffiles/smplren2.pdf
Muslims in the Americas before Columbus
http://cyberistan.org/islamic/mamerica.html
Muslim Scientists & Islamic Civilization
http://cyberistan.org/islamic/index.htm#islcivil
Biography of Ibn Battuta
http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Ibn_Battuta_Rihla.html
Islamic Calendar
http://webexhibits.org/calendars/
http://moonsighting.com/
Science in the Quran
The Bible, the Quran, and Science (1986) by Maurice Bucaille
http://islamicity.com/science/
Islamic Art & Architecture
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/features/art/index.shtml
http://islam.about.com/blclipart.htm
